Natural areas of Eurasia. Natural areas of the continent Eurasia Natural areas of Eurasia 40 degrees

Description of practical work

“Comparison of natural zones along the 40th parallel

on continents Eurasia and North America "

According to the compiled work program, the practical work “Comparison of natural zones along the 40th parallel on the continents of Eurasia and North America” is carried out in a lesson while studying the topic “Natural zones of Eurasia”.

The purpose of the lesson: the formation of students' ideas and knowledge about the nature of Eurasia.

To continue the formation of the ability to establish causal relationships between various components of nature and explain the adaptive features of living organisms to living conditions, to draw independent conclusions.

Determine which natural area can really be called the “lungs of the planet” and why

Equipment: A physical map of the world, a map of "Natural Zones", atlases, a geography textbook, Grade 7.

Ways of cognitive activity of students: comparative, analysis, generalization.

In the course of the practical work, the teacher carries out the actualization of knowledge, where he fixes the concepts of “natural zone”, “latitudinal zonality”, “altitudinal zonation”.

Enhances students' knowledge on the topic "Natural areas », establishing cause-effect relationships of the location of natural zones on the mainland.

At the next stage, the teacher explains the stages of the practical work, paying attention to the use by children of various sources of additional information: thematic atlases, reference books.

Then the students proceed to the practical part, filling out the table proposed by the teacher, and write down the conclusions.

When carrying out all the described stages of work, students perform it without difficulty. This practical work is pleasant to students of those. that by making a comparison on the map, the differences in the location of natural zones are immediately visible. The table proposed by the teacher is filled quickly and without errors. The conclusion reflects the ability of seventh graders to analyze and synthesize the results.

Practical work “Comparison of natural zones along the 40th parallel on the continents of Eurasia and North America”

Purpose: to determine the similarities and differences in the location of natural zones on the 40th parallel of continents Eurasia and North America

Tasks:

Educational: to consolidate the concept of “natural zones”, the diversity of natural zones along the 40th parallel of the continents of Eurasia and North America and the factors affecting their geographical location

Developing : continue the formation of cognitive activity of students, the development of the ability to compare the data obtained and draw appropriate conclusions

Educational: to raise interest in the subject, attentiveness when working with cards

1. Updating knowledge:

Define the concept of “natural zone”. How often are they located? What is latitudinal zoning? What are the main reasons for its occurrence? What is the law of "high-altitude zoning"? Why on the mainland of Eurasia, natural zones are located not only from north to south, but also from west to east?

2.Work on the atlas and demo map "Natural zones of the world"

Show on the map the 40th parallel of the northern hemisphere. What continents does it cross? Name and show the natural areas located on this parallel on mainland North America? Show and name the natural zones located on the 40th parallel on the continent of Eurasia? What interesting things have been noticed in the location of natural zones on these continents? What natural zones are repeated on two continents? Why? What's the Difference?

3. Implementation of the practical part:

1 fill in the table using the atlas:

2. Write down the conclusion, indicating the reasons affecting the difference in the natural zones of the two continents along the 40th parallel.

4. The planned result of the work of students:

Students fill out a spreadsheet. Then write the conclusion indicating the factors. affecting differences in the location of natural zones in the 40th parallel.

Basically, the natural zones of Eurasia vary in latitude. But there are two factors that determine the change in zonality in the vertical direction:

heterogeneous relief;
impact of the oceans in coastal areas.

Consider the main natural zones that are located on the mainland in a direction from north to south.

Fig. 1. Map of natural areas of Eurasia

Table "Natural areas of Eurasia"

Name of the natural zone	Geographical position
Arctic deserts	Islands of the Arctic Ocean
Tundra and Lesotundra	Northern parts of Europe with expansion in the eastern part of Eurasia. Part of Iceland
	Scandinavian Peninsula, most of Russia, Western Japan
Mixed forests	Baltic countries, European part of Russia.
Deciduous forest	European countries, East Pacific
Hard-leaved Evergreen Forests (Mediterranean)	Southern regions of Europe
Forest steppes and steppes	Black Sea region, Kazakhstan, Northeast part of Mongolia.
Deserts and semi-deserts	Arabian Peninsula, Caspian countries, China
Savannahs and woodlands	India, Southeast Continent
Alternating wet forests	The coast of the Pacific Ocean in the Southeastern regions, a narrow strip of the Hindustan Peninsula.
Permanently humid equatorial and tropical forests	Islands of the indian ocean

Almost all natural zones, with the exception of moist equatorial and tropical forests, are located on the mainland.

Zone Characterization

The high latitude zone is characterized by a harsh cold climate with long winters and short summers. There is little vegetation and a poor fauna. Northern latitudes, from about 71 ° are considered the Arctic belt. A little lower are the tundra and forest-tundra. They are best expressed in Russia. There is also little vegetation and a cold climate on the island of Iceland.

The nature of the lower latitudes

The peninsulas of Hindustan and Malacca, Burma are located in the savannah zone. Nature is represented by many species of drought-resistant tall trees with vines.

The low latitudes of the equatorial belt are moist equatorial forests. Harvest from palm trees and fruit trees several times a year. This includes warm island countries that represent good tourism potential.

Separately, it is worth highlighting areas with altitudinal zonation. They have their own climate character, vegetation and wildlife. Mountains encircle the entire continent and pass a strip from West to East. On the territory of Eurasia is the highest mountain system - the Himalayas.

What did we learn?

Eurasia is the largest continent in the world in which all existing natural zones are located. If you are interested in which of them is the largest, then this is the desert. The most favorable regions for living are in the temperate climatic zone. Among the forests, taiga prevail.

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geographic eurasia natural area

Geographical zonality is the pattern of differentiation of the geographic (landscape) shell of the Earth, manifested in a sequential and definite change in geographic zones and zones, caused primarily by changes in the amount of radiant energy of the Sun falling on the Earth’s surface, depending on geographic latitude. Such zoning is also inherent in most components and processes of natural territorial complexes - climatic, hydrological, geochemical and geomorphological processes, soil and vegetation cover and wildlife, partly the formation of sedimentary rocks. A decrease in the angle of incidence of sunlight from the equator to the poles causes the allocation of latitudinal radiation belts - hot, two moderate and two cold. The formation of similar thermal and especially climatic and geographical zones is already associated with the properties and circulation of the atmosphere, which are greatly influenced by the distribution of land and oceans (the reasons for the latter are azonal). The differentiation of natural zones on land depends on the ratio of heat and moisture, changing not only in latitude, but also on the coasts inland (continuation of sectorality), so we can talk about horizontal zonality, a particular manifestation of which is latitudinal zonation, well expressed on the territory of the continent of Eurasia .

Each geographical zone and sector has its own set (spectrum) of zones and their sequence. The distribution of natural zones is also manifested in the regular change of altitudinal zones, or zones, in the mountains, which is also initially due to the azonal factor - relief, however, certain spectra of altitudinal zones are also characteristic of certain zones and sectors. The zoning in Eurasia is mostly characterized as horizontal, with the following zones being distinguished (their name comes from the predominant type of vegetation cover):

Zone of arctic deserts;

Zone of tundra and forest-tundra;

Taiga zone;

Zone of mixed and deciduous forests;

Zone of forest-steppes and steppes;

Zone of semi-deserts and deserts;

Zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs (the so-called

“Mediterranean” zone);

Zone of variable-wet (including monsoon) forests;

Zone of humid equatorial forests.

Now all the zones presented will be examined in detail, their main characteristics, be it climatic conditions, vegetation, wildlife.

The Arctic desert (“Arktos” in Greek - bear) is a natural zone part of the Arctic geographical zone, the basin of the Arctic Ocean. This is the northernmost of the natural areas, characterized by an arctic climate. The spaces are covered with glaciers, rubble and stone fragments.

The climate of the Arctic deserts is not diverse. Weather conditions are extremely severe, with strong winds, little rainfall, very low temperatures: in winter (up to? 60 ° C), on average? 30? C in February, the average temperature of even the warmest month is close to 0 ° C. Snow cover on land lasts almost all year round, leaving only a month and a half. Long polar days and nights, lasting for five months, short off-season add particular color to these harsh places. Only the Atlantic currents bring in some areas, such as the western coast of Svalbard, additional heat and moisture. Such a state is formed not only due to the low temperatures of high latitudes, but also due to the high ability of snow and ice to reflect heat - albedo. Annual precipitation is up to 400 mm.

Where everything is covered in ice, life seems impossible. But this is not at all true. In places where nunataki rocks come out from under the ice, there is its own plant world. In the cracks of rocks, where a small amount of soil accumulates, in the thawed areas of glacial deposits - moraines, mosses, lichens, some species of algae and even cereals and flowering plants settle near snowfields. Among them are bluegrass, cotton grass, polar poppy, partridge grass-dryad, sedge, dwarf willow, birch, various types of saxifrage. But, the restoration of vegetation is extremely slow. Although during the cold polar summer she has time to bloom and even bear fruit. Numerous birds find shelter on the coastal cliffs and nest in the summer, setting up “bird markets” on the cliffs - geese, gulls, eiders, terns, waders.

Numerous pinnipeds live in the Arctic - seals, seals, walruses, and elephant seals. Seals feed on fish, swimming in its search for the ice of the Arctic Ocean. An elongated streamlined body shape helps them move in water with great speed. The seals themselves are yellowish-gray with dark spots, and their cubs have beautiful snow-white fur, which they retain until they grow up. Because of her, they were called squirrels.

Terrestrial fauna is poor: arctic fox, polar bear, lemming. The most famous inhabitant of the Arctic is the polar bear. This is the largest predator on Earth. The length of his body can reach 3 m, and the weight of an adult bear is about 600 kg and even more! The Arctic is the kingdom of the polar bear, where he feels in his element. The lack of land does not bother the bear, mainly its habitat is the ice floes of the Arctic Ocean. Bears are excellent swimmers and often swim far in the open sea in search of food. The polar bear eats fish, preys on seals, seals, and walrus cubs. Despite its power, the polar bear needs protection; it is listed in the Red Book of both the International and the Russian.

In high northern latitudes (these are territories and water areas lying north of the 65th parallel) there is a natural zone of Arctic deserts, a zone of eternal frost. The boundaries of this zone, as well as the borders of the Arctic as a whole, are rather arbitrary. Although the space around the North Pole does not have land, its role here is played by solid and floating ice. At high latitudes there are islands, archipelagos washed by the waters of the Arctic Ocean, and coastal zones of the continent of Eurasia lie within them. These pieces of land are almost entirely or for the most part bound by “eternal ice,” or rather, the remains of the huge glaciers that covered this part of the planet during the last ice age. Arctic glaciers of archipelagos sometimes go beyond land and descend into the sea, such as some glaciers of Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land.

In the Northern Hemisphere, on the outskirts of the continent of Eurasia south of the polar deserts, as well as on the island of Iceland, there is a natural zone of the tundra. The tundra is a type of natural zones lying beyond the northern limits of forest vegetation, a space with permafrost soil that is not flooded with sea or river waters. The tundra is located north of the taiga zone. By the nature of the surface of the tundra there are marshy, peaty, stony. The southern border of the tundra is taken as the beginning of the Arctic. The name comes from the Sami language and means “dead land”.

These latitudes can be called subpolar, the winters are harsh and long, and the summers are cool and short, with frosts. The temperature of the warmest month - July does not exceed + 10 ... + 12 ° C, already in the second half of August it can snow, and the established snow cover does not melt for 7-9 months. Up to 300 mm of precipitation falls in the tundra per year, and in the regions of Eastern Siberia, where the continental climate increases, their amount does not exceed 100 mm per year. Although there is no more rainfall in this natural zone than in the desert, they mostly fall in the summer and evaporate very poorly at such low summer temperatures, which is why excess moisture is created in the tundra. The ground frozen during a harsh winter in the summer thaws only a few tens of centimeters, which does not allow moisture to seep deep into, it stagnates, and waterlogging occurs. Even in slight depressions, numerous swamps and lakes are formed.

Cold summers, strong winds, excessive moisture and permafrost determine the nature of vegetation in the tundra. + 10 ... + 12 ° C - limit temperatures at which trees can grow. In the tundra zone they acquire special, dwarf forms. Dwarf willows and birches with curved trunks and branches, undersized shrubs and shrubs grow on humus-poor infertile tundra-gley soils. They are pressed to the ground, densely interwoven with each other. The endless flat plains of the tundra are covered with thick carpet with mosses and lichens, hiding the small trunks of trees, shrubs and grass roots.

As soon as the snow melts, the harsh landscape comes to life, all the plants seem to be in a hurry to use the short warm summer for their vegetation cycle. In July, the tundra is covered with a carpet of flowering plants - polar poppies, dandelions, forget-me-nots, puddles, etc. The tundra is rich in berry bushes - lingonberries, cranberries, cloudberries, blueberries.

Based on the nature of the vegetation, three zones are distinguished in the tundra. The northern Arctic tundra has a harsh climate and very sparse vegetation. Moss-lichen tundra located to the south is softer and richer in plant species, and in the very south of the tundra zone, in the shrub tundra, you can see trees and shrubs reaching a height of 1.5 m. To the south, the shrub tundra is gradually replaced by the forest-tundra - the transition zone between the tundra and taiga. This is one of the most swampy natural areas, because there is more precipitation (300-400 mm per year) than it can evaporate. In the forest-tundra, undersized trees appear birch, spruce, larch, but they grow mainly along river valleys. Open spaces are still occupied by vegetation characteristic of the tundra zone. To the south, the forest area is increasing, but even there the forest-tundra is an alternation of light forests and treeless spaces, covered with mosses, lichens, shrubs and shrubs.

Mountain tundra form a high-altitude zone in the mountains of the subarctic and temperate zones. On stony and gravelly soils from high-altitude woodlands, they begin with a shrub belt, as in the flat tundra. Above are moss-lichen with pillow-shaped shrubs and some herbs. The upper belt of the mountain tundra is represented by scale lichens, sparse squat pillow-like shrubs and mosses among stone placers.

The harsh climate of the tundra and the lack of good food make the animals living in these parts to adapt to difficult living conditions. The largest mammals of the tundra and forest-tundra are reindeer. They are easily recognizable by the huge horns that are found not only in males, but also in females. The horns go back first, and then bend up and forward, their large processes hang over the muzzle, and the deer can rake them snow, extracting food. Deer do not see well, but have a sensitive hearing and a delicate sense of smell. Their dense winter fur consists of long hollow cylindrical hairs. They grow perpendicular to the body, creating a dense heat-insulating layer around the animal. In summer, softer and shorter fur grows in deer.

Large diverging hooves allow the deer to walk along loose snow and soft ground without falling through. In winter, deer feed mainly on lichens, digging them out from under the snow, the depth of which sometimes reaches 80 cm. They do not refuse lemmings, voles, can ruin bird nests, and even gobble up each other's horns in hungry years.

Deer lead a nomadic lifestyle. In summer, they feed in the northern tundra, where there are fewer gnats and gadflies, and in the fall they return to the forest-tundra, where there is more food and warmer winter. During seasonal crossings, animals cover distances of 1000 km. Reindeers run fast and swim well, which allows them to escape from the main enemies - wolves.

The reindeer of Eurasia are distributed from the Scandinavian Peninsula to Kamchatka. They live in Greenland, on the Arctic islands and on the north coast of North America.

For a long time, the peoples of the North domesticated deer, receiving from them milk, meat, cheese, clothes, shoes, material for plague, vessels for food - almost everything necessary for life. The fat content of milk of these animals is four times higher than cow. Reindeers are very hardy, one deer can carry a load of 200 kg, passing up to 70 km per day.

Along with reindeers, polar wolves, arctic foxes, polar hares, partridges, and polar owls live in the tundra. In summer, many migratory birds arrive, geese, ducks, swans, waders nest on the banks of rivers and lakes.

Of rodents, lemmings are especially interesting - touching fluffy animals the size of a palm. Three types of lemmings are known, which are common in Norway, Greenland and Russia. All lemmings are brown in color, and only hoofed lemmings in winter change their skin to white. These rodents spend the cold period of the year underground, they dig long underground tunnels and actively breed. One female can have up to 36 cubs per year.

In the spring, in search of food, lemmings climb to the surface. Under favorable conditions, their population may increase so much that there is not enough food for everyone in the tundra. Trying to find food, lemmings make massive migrations - a huge wave of rodents rushes along the endless tundra, and when a river or sea meets on the way, hungry animals under the pressure of running after them fall into the water and die by the thousands. The life cycles of many polar animals depend on the number of lemmings. If there are few of them, the polar owl, for example, does not lay eggs, and the Arctic foxes, the polar foxes, migrate south, into the forest-tundra, in search of another food.

The white, or polar, owl is undoubtedly the queen of the tundra. Its wingspan reaches 1.5 m. Old birds are dazzlingly white, while young birds are mottled in color, and both have yellow eyes and a black beak. This magnificent bird flies almost silently, hunting at any time of the day for voles, lemmings, muskrat. She attacks partridges, hares and even catches fish. In the summer, a white owl lays 6-8 eggs, nesting in a small depression on the ground.

But due to human activities (and primarily due to oil production, construction and operation of oil pipelines), many parts of the Russian tundra are in danger of ecological disaster. Due to fuel leaks from oil pipelines, the surrounding area is polluted, often burning oil lakes and completely burned-out territories, once covered with vegetation, are often found.

Despite the fact that during the construction of new oil pipelines special passages are made so that deer can move freely, animals cannot always find and use them.

Trains are moving along the tundra, leaving behind trash and destroying vegetation. The soil layer of the tundra damaged by caterpillar transport has been restored for more than a dozen years.

All this leads to an increase in the pollution of soil, water and vegetation, a decrease in the number of deer and other inhabitants of the tundra.

Lesotumndra is a subarctic type of landscape in which in the interfluve, oppressed light forests alternate with shrubby or typical tundra. Various researchers consider the forest-tundra a subzone of either the tundra, or the taiga, and, more recently, tundroles. Landscapes of the forest-tundra stretch in a strip from 30 to 300 km wide from the Kola Peninsula to the Indigirka Basin, and to the east they are fragmented. Despite the small amount of atmospheric precipitation (200-350 mm), the forest tundra is characterized by a sharp excess of moisture over fumes, which leads to the wide distribution of lakes from 10 to 60% of the subzone area.

The average air temperatures in July are 10-12 ° C, and in January, depending on the increase in climate continentality, from? 10 ° to? 40 ° C. With the exception of rare taliks, soils are generally permafrost. Soils are peaty-gley, peat-bog soils, and under light forests - gley-podzolic (podbury).

Flora has the following character: shrub tundra and light forests change due to longitudinal zoning. On the Kola Peninsula - warty birch; east to the Urals - spruce; in Western Siberia - spruce with Siberian larch; east of Putorana - Daurian larch with a skinny birch; to the east of Lena there is a larch of Kayander with a skinny birch and alder, and to the east of Kolyma a cedar elfin mixes with them.

The fauna of the forest-tundra is dominated by lemmings of different species in different longitudinal zones, reindeer, arctic foxes, partridges white and tundra, polar owl and a wide variety of migratory, waterfowl and small birds settling in bushes. Lesotundra is a valuable deer pasture and hunting grounds.

To protect and study the natural landscapes of the forest-tundra, reserves and national parks, including the Taimyr Nature Reserve, have been created. Reindeer husbandry and hunting are traditional occupations of the indigenous population, using up to 90% of the territory under deer pastures.

The natural zone of the taiga is located in the north of Eurasia. Taiga is a biome characterized by a predominance of coniferous forests. Located in the northern subarctic humid geographical area. Coniferous trees form the basis of plant life there. In Eurasia, originating on the Scandinavian Peninsula, it spread to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The Eurasian taiga is the largest continuous forest zone on Earth. It occupies more than 60% of the territory of the Russian Federation. Taiga contains huge reserves of wood and supplies a large amount of oxygen to the atmosphere. In the north, the taiga smoothly passes into the forest-tundra, gradually taiga forests are replaced by light forests, and then by separate groups of trees. Most of all, taiga forests enter the forest-tundra along river valleys that are most protected from strong northern winds. In the south, taiga also smoothly passes into coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests. For many centuries, man has interfered in natural landscapes in these areas, so now they are a complex natural and anthropogenic complex.

In Russia, the southern border of the taiga begins approximately at the latitude of St. Petersburg, stretches to the upper Volga, north of Moscow to the Urals, then to Novosibirsk, and then to Khabarovsk and Nakhodka in the Far East, where mixed forests replace them. All Western and Eastern Siberia, most of the Far East, the mountains of the Urals, Altai, Sayan, Pribaikalye, Sikhote-Alin, Big Khingan are covered with taiga forests.

The climate of the taiga zone within the temperate climatic zone varies from marine in the west of Eurasia to sharply continental in the east. In the west, comparatively warm summers (+10 ° C) and mild winters (-10 ° C) are precipitated more than can evaporate. Under conditions of excessive moisture, the decomposition products of organic and mineral substances are carried out into the lower soil layers, forming a clarified podzolic horizon, along which the prevailing soils of the taiga zone are called podzolic. Permafrost contributes to stagnation of moisture; therefore, significant areas within this natural zone, especially in the north of European Russia and in Western Siberia, are occupied by lakes, swamps, and marshy open woodlands. In dark coniferous forests growing on podzolic and permafrost-taiga soils, spruce and pine dominate and, as a rule, there is no undergrowth. Twilight reigns under the closing crowns, in the lower tier mosses, lichens, forbs, dense fern and berry bushes - lingonberries, blueberries, blueberries grow. Pine forests predominate in the north-west of the European part of Russia, and on the western slope of the Urals, which is characterized by great cloud cover, sufficient rainfall and thick snow cover, spruce-fir and spruce-fir-cedar forests.

On the eastern slope of the Urals, humidity is lower than on the western, and therefore the composition of forest vegetation is different: light-coniferous forests predominate - mainly pine, sometimes mixed with larch and cedar (Siberian pine).

Light coniferous forests are characteristic of the Asian part of taiga. In the Siberian taiga, summer temperatures in the continental climate rise to +20 ° C, and in winter in northeastern Siberia they can drop to -50 ° C. On the territory of the West Siberian Lowland, mainly larch and spruce forests grow in the northern part, pine in the central part, spruce, cedar and fir in the southern part. Light coniferous forests are less demanding on soil and climatic conditions and can grow even on low-fertile soils. The crowns of these forests are not closed, and through them the sun's rays freely penetrate into the lower tier. The shrub layer of light coniferous taiga consists of alder, dwarf birches and willows, berry bushes.

In Central and North-Eastern Siberia, in the conditions of severe climate and permafrost, larch taiga dominates. For centuries, almost the entire taiga zone has suffered from the negative effects of human activities: slash-and-burn farming, hunting, hayfields in floodplains, selective felling, air pollution, etc. Only in remote areas of Siberia today you can find corners of virgin nature. The balance between natural processes and traditional economic activity, which has evolved over millennia, is now being destroyed, and the taiga as a natural complex is gradually disappearing.

Summarizing, taiga is characterized by the absence or weak development of undergrowth (since there is little light in the forest), as well as the uniformity of the grass-shrub layer and moss cover (green mosses). Types of shrubs (juniper, honeysuckle, currant, willow, etc.), shrubs (blueberries, lingonberries, etc.) and herbs (sour, pear) are not numerous.

In the north of Europe (Finland, Sweden, Norway, Russia) spruce forests prevail. Light coniferous forests of common pine are characteristic of the taiga of the Urals. In Siberia and the Far East, a rare-standing larch taiga dominates with undergrowth of cedar dwarf, Daurian rhododendron, etc.

The fauna of the taiga is richer and more diverse than the fauna of the tundra. Numerous and widespread: lynx, wolverine, chipmunk, sable, squirrel, and others. Of ungulates there are northern and red deer, elk, roe deer; rodents are numerous: shrews, mice. Of the birds, they are common: capercaillie, hazel grouse, pine nutcracker, crossbills, etc.

Compared to the forest-tundra forest, the conditions for animals are more favorable in the taiga forest. There are more settled animals. Nowhere in the world, except for taiga, there are so many fur-bearing animals.

The fauna of the taiga zone of Eurasia is very rich. Large predators live here - a brown bear, a wolf, a lynx, a fox, and smaller predators - an otter, a mink, a marten, a wolverine, a sable, a weasel, an ermine. Many taiga animals survive long, cold and snowy winters in a state of suspended animation (invertebrates) or hibernation (brown bear, chipmunk), and many species of birds migrate to other regions. Sparrows, woodpeckers, black grouse - capercaillie, hazel grouse, wild grouse constantly live in taiga forests.

Brown bears are typical inhabitants of vast forests, not only taiga, but also mixed forests. In the world there are 125-150 thousand brown bears, of which two-thirds live in the Russian Federation. The sizes and coloring of the subspecies of brown bears (Kamchatka, Kodiak, grizzly, European brown) are different. Some brown bears reach three meters in height and weigh more than 700 kg. They have a powerful body, strong five-fingered paws with huge claws, a short tail, a large head with small eyes and ears. Bears can be reddish and dark brown, almost black, and by old age (by 20-25 years) the ends of the coat turn gray and the animal turns gray. Bears feed on grass, nuts, berries, honey, animals, carrion, dig up anthills and eat ants. In autumn, bears feed on nutritious berries (they can eat over 40 kg per day) and therefore quickly grow fat, gaining almost 3 kg in weight daily. For a year, in search of food, bears travel from 230 to 260 kilometers, and with the approach of winter return to their dens. Animals arrange winter "apartments" in natural dry shelters and line them with moss, dry grass, branches, needles and leaves. Sometimes male bears sleep in the open air all winter. The winter dream of a brown bear is very sensitive, in fact, it is a winter numbness. In the thaw, individuals who do not have enough time to feed enough fat over the fall go off in search of food. Some animals - the so-called connecting rods - do not hibernate for the winter, but roam in search of food, representing a great danger to people. In January-February, in the den, the female gives birth to from one to four cubs. Kids are born blind, without hair and teeth. They weigh a little over 500 grams, but grow quickly on human milk. In the spring, furry and nimble cubs come out of the den. They usually stay with their mother for two and a half - three years, and finally grow up to 10 years.

Wolves are common in many areas of Europe and Asia. They are found in the steppe, in the desert, in mixed forests and in the taiga. The body length of the largest individuals reaches 160 cm, and the weight is 80 kg. Mostly wolves are gray, but the tundra are usually somewhat lighter, and the desert ones are grayish-red. These ruthless predators are distinguished by developed intelligence. Nature supplied them with sharp fangs, powerful jaws and strong paws, therefore, pursuing a victim, they are able to run many tens of kilometers and can kill an animal much larger and stronger than themselves. The main prey of the wolf is large and medium-sized mammals, as a rule, ungulates, although they also hunt birds. Usually wolves live in pairs, and in late autumn they gather in packs of 15 to 20 animals.

Lynx is found in the taiga zone from Scandinavia to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. She climbs trees well, swims beautifully and feels confident on the ground. High legs, a strong body, sharp teeth and excellently developed sensory organs make it a dangerous predator. Lynx preys on birds, small rodents, less often - on small ungulates, and sometimes on foxes, domestic animals, climbs into the herds of sheep and goats. At the beginning of summer, in a deep, well-hidden burrow, a female lynx gives birth to 2-3 cubs.

Siberian chipmunk lives in the taiga forests of Siberia - a typical representative of the chipmunks genus, which is also found in northern Mongolia, China and Japan. The length of the body of this funny animal is about 15 cm, and the length of its fluffy tail is 10 cm. On the back and sides, 5 longitudinal dark stripes characteristic of all chipmunks on a light gray or reddish background. Chipmunks arrange nests under fallen trees or less often in tree hollows. They feed on seeds, berries, mushrooms, lichens, insects and other invertebrates. For the winter, chipmunks store about 5 kg of seeds and, hibernating in the cold season, do not leave their shelters until spring.

Protein coloration depends on the habitat. In the Siberian taiga, they are reddish or copper-gray with a blue tint, and in European forests they are brown or red-red. The squirrel weighs up to a kilogram, and its body length reaches 30 cm, and its tail is about the same length. In winter, the fur of the animal is soft and fluffy, and in summer it is harder, shorter and shinier. Squirrel is well adapted for life on trees. A long, wide and light tail helps her deftly jump from tree to tree. The squirrel swims perfectly, lifting its tail high above the water. She arranges a nest in a hollow or builds from the branches of trees a so-called guyo, which has the shape of a ball with a side entrance. The nest of protein is carefully lined with moss, grass, rags, so it is warm even in severe frosts. Squirrels bring cubs twice a year, in one brood there are from 3 to 10 squirrels. The squirrel eats berries, coniferous seeds, nuts, acorns, mushrooms, and if there is a lack of food, it nibbles the bark from shoots, eats leaves and even lichens, sometimes preys on birds, lizards, snakes, and ravages nests. For the winter, the squirrel makes stocks.

The taiga of Eurasia, mainly the massifs of the Siberian taiga, is called the green “lungs” of the planet, since the oxygen and carbon balance of the surface layer of the atmosphere depend on the state of these forests. To protect and study the typical and unique natural landscapes of the taiga, a number of reserves and national parks have been created in North America and Eurasia, including Wood Buffalo, the Barguzinsky Reserve, etc. Industrial timber reserves are concentrated in the taiga, and large mineral deposits have been discovered and developed (coal , oil, gas, etc.). Also a lot of valuable wood

The traditional occupations of the population are hunting for fur animals, collecting medicinal raw materials, wild fruits, nuts, berries and mushrooms, fishing, forestry, (building houses), cattle breeding.

The zone of mixed (coniferous-deciduous) forests is a natural zone characterized by a symbiosis of coniferous and deciduous forests. A prerequisite for this is the opportunity for them to occupy specific niches in the ecological system of the forest. As a rule, it is customary to talk about mixed forests when the admixture of deciduous or coniferous trees is more than 5% of the total.

Mixed forests along with taiga and broad-leaved forests make up the forest zone. Mixed forest stands are formed by trees of various species. Within the temperate zone, several types of mixed forests are distinguished: coniferous-deciduous forest; secondary small-leaved forest mixed with coniferous or broad-leaved trees and a mixed forest consisting of evergreen and deciduous species of trees. In subtropics in mixed forests, mainly laurel and coniferous trees grow.

In Eurasia, the coniferous-deciduous forest zone is distributed south of the taiga zone. Wide enough in the west, it gradually narrows to the east. Small areas of mixed forests are found in Kamchatka and the south of the Far East. The mixed forest zone is characterized by a climate with cold snowy winters and warm summers. Winter temperatures in the areas of the sea temperate climate are positive, and as they move away from the oceans they drop to -10 ° С. The amount of precipitation (400-1000 mm per year) is not much higher than evaporation.

Coniferous-deciduous (and in the continental regions - coniferous-small-leaved) forests grow mainly on gray forest and sod-podzolic soils. The humus horizon of sod-podzolic soils, located between the forest litter (3-5 cm) and the podzolic horizon, is about 20 cm. The forest litter of mixed forests consists of many grasses. By dying and decaying, they constantly increase the humus horizon.

Mixed forests are distinguished by a well-marked tier, that is, a change in the composition of vegetation in height. The upper tree layer is occupied by tall pines and spruces, and below grow oaks, lindens, maples, birches, elms. Shrubs, grasses, mosses and lichens grow under a shrub layer formed by raspberries, viburnum, rose hips, hawthorn.

Coniferous-small-leaved forests, consisting of birch, aspen, alder, are intermediate forests in the process of formation of coniferous forests.

Within the zone of mixed forests there are also treeless spaces. The elevated treeless plains with fertile gray forest soils are called landslides. They are found in the south of the taiga and in the zones of mixed and broad-leaved forests of the East European Plain.

Polesie - low treeless plains composed of sandy deposits of thawed glacial waters are common in eastern Poland, in Polesie, in the Meshchera lowland and are often swampy.

In the south of the Russian Far East, where seasonal winds — monsoons dominate within the temperate climatic zone — mixed and broad-leaved forests called Ussuri taiga grow on brown forest soils. They are characterized by a more complex longline structure, a huge variety of plant and animal species.

The territory of this natural zone has long been developed by man and is densely populated. On large areas stretched agricultural land, towns, cities. A significant part of the forests has been cut down, so the composition of the forest has changed in many places, and the proportion of small-leaved trees has increased in it.

The fauna of mixed and deciduous forests. Animals and birds living in mixed forests are characteristic of the forest zone as a whole. Foxes, hares, hedgehogs and wild boars are found even in well-developed forests near Moscow, and moose sometimes go on the roads and on the outskirts of villages. There is a lot of protein not only in forests, but also in city parks. On the banks of rivers in quiet places, away from settlements, you can see beaver huts. Bears, wolves, martens, and badgers are also found in mixed forests; the bird world is diverse.

European moose is not for nothing called a forest giant. Indeed, it is one of the largest ungulate animals in the forest zone. The average male weight is about 300 kg, but there are giants weighing more than half a ton (the largest moose are East Siberian, their weight reaches 565 kg). In males, the head is decorated with huge spade-shaped horns. The elk's coat is coarse, gray-brown or black-brown, with a bright shade on the lips and legs.

Moose prefer young felling and copulation. They feed on branches and shoots of deciduous trees (aspen, willow, mountain ash), in winter - pine needles, mosses and lichens. Moose are excellent swimmers, an adult animal is able to swim for two hours at a speed of about ten kilometers per hour. Moose can dive looking for delicate leaves, roots and tubers of aquatic plants underwater. There are cases when moose dived for food to a depth of more than five meters. In May-June, a moose cow brings one or two calves, they go with their mother until the fall, eating her milk and green food.

The fox is a very sensitive and cautious predator. It is about a meter long and almost the same size with a fluffy tail, with a sharp, elongated muzzle - triangular ears. Foxes are most often painted in a red color of various shades, the chest and abdomen are usually light gray, and the tip of the tail is always white.

Foxes prefer mixed forests, alternating with clearings, meadows and ponds. They can be seen near villages, on forest edges, on the edge of a swamp, in groves and shrubs among fields. On the terrain, the fox is guided mainly by the sense of smell and hearing; her vision is much less developed. She swims pretty well.

Typically, a fox settles in abandoned badger burrows, less often independently digs a hole 2-4 m deep with two or three exits. Sometimes, in a complex system of badger dens, foxes and badgers settle nearby. Foxes lead a sedentary life, go hunting more often at night and at dusk, feed mainly on rodents, birds and hares, and in rare cases attack roe deer. On average, foxes live 6-8 years, but in captivity they can live up to 20 years and longer.

The common badger is found in Europe and Asia up to the Far East. The size of an average dog, it has a body length of 90 cm, a tail - 24 cm, and a mass of about 25 kg. At night the badger goes hunting. Its main feed is worms, insects, frogs, nutritious roots. Sometimes during one hunt he eats up to 70 frogs! In the morning, the badger returns to its hole and sleeps until the next night. Badger hole - a capital structure of several floors with about 50 entrances. A central hole lined with dry grass 5-10 m long is located at a depth of 1-3 or even 5 m. All impurities of animals are carefully buried in the ground. Badgers often live in colonies, and then the area of \u200b\u200btheir holes reaches several thousand square meters. Scientists believe that the age of some badger holes exceeds a thousand years. By winter, the badger accumulates a significant amount of fat and sleeps in its hole throughout the winter.

Common hedgehog - one of the most ancient mammals - its age is about 1 million years. The hedgehog has poor eyesight, but its sense of smell and hearing are well developed. Defending itself from enemies, the hedgehog curls up into a prickly ball, which no predator can handle (a hedgehog has about 5,000 needles 20 mm long). In Russia, hedgehogs with gray needles are more common, on which dark transverse stripes are visible. Hedgehogs live in birch forests with dense grass cover, in thickets of bushes, on old clearings, in parks. It feeds on hedgehogs, insects, invertebrates (earthworms, slugs and snails), frogs, snakes, eggs and chicks of birds nesting on the ground, sometimes berries. Hedgehogs arrange winter and summer burrows. In the winter, they sleep from October to April, and in the summer, a hedgehog is born. Shortly after birth, the cubs have soft white needles, and 36 hours after birth, dark-colored needles appear.

The hare lives not only in forests, but also in the tundra, birch pegs, on overgrown clearings and burns, sometimes in steppe shrubs. In winter, the brownish or gray color of the skin changes to pure white, only the tips of the ears remain black, and furry “skis” grow on the paws. The hare eats grassy plants, shoots and bark of willow, aspen, birch, hazel, oak, and maple. The hare does not have a permanent lair; in case of danger, he prefers to flee. In the middle lane, usually 3 to 6 cubs are born twice a summer in a hare. Young adults become adults after wintering. The number of white hare varies from year to year. In years of high numbers, hares severely damage young trees in forests and make massive migrations.

Deciduous forest - a forest in which there are no conifers.

Deciduous forests are common in fairly humid areas with mild winters. Unlike coniferous forests, a thick litter layer does not form in the soils of deciduous forests, since a warmer and wetter climate contributes to the rapid decomposition of plant debris. Although the leaves fall annually, the mass of deciduous litter is not much higher than coniferous, as deciduous trees are more photophilous and grow less often than conifers. In deciduous litter, compared with coniferous, contains twice as many nutrients, especially calcium. Unlike coniferous humus, biological processes involving earthworms and bacteria actively occur in less acidic leafy humus. Therefore, almost the entire litter decomposes by spring, and a humus horizon forms that binds nutrients in the soil and prevents their leaching.

Deciduous forest is divided into broad-leaved forests and small-leaved forests.

European broad-leaved forests are endangered forest ecosystems. Just a few centuries ago, they occupied most of Europe and were among the richest and most diverse on the planet. In the XVI - XVII centuries. natural oak forests grew on an area of \u200b\u200bseveral million hectares, and today, according to the forest fund, there are no more than 100 thousand hectares left. So over several centuries, the area of \u200b\u200bthese forests has decreased tenfold. Formed by deciduous trees with wide leaf blades, deciduous forests are common in Europe, Northern China, Japan, and the Far East. They occupy an area between mixed forests in the north and the steppes, Mediterranean or subtropical vegetation in the south.

Broad-leaved forests grow in areas with a humid and moderately humid climate, which are characterized by a uniform distribution of precipitation (from 400 to 600 mm) throughout the year and relatively high temperatures. The average temperature in January is -8 ... 0 ° C, and in July + 20 ... + 24 ° C. Moderately warm and humid climatic conditions, as well as the active activity of soil organisms (bacteria, fungi, invertebrates) contribute to the rapid decomposition of leaves and the accumulation of humus. Under broad-leaved forests, fertile gray forest and brown forest soils are formed, less often chernozems.

The upper tier in these forests is occupied by oak, beech, hornbeam and linden. In Europe there are ash, elm, maple, elm. The undergrowth is formed by shrubs - hazel, warty spindle tree, forest honeysuckle. In the dense and high grass cover of European broad-leaved forests, dignity, greenfinch, hoofed grass, medunica, woodruff, sedge hairy, spring ephemeroids: crested anemones, anemones, snowdrops, snouts, goose onions and others prevail.

Modern broad-leaved and coniferous-broad-leaved forests were formed five to seven millennia ago, when the planet was warming and broad-leaved species of trees could go far north. Over the next millennia, the climate became colder and the zone of deciduous forests gradually decreased. Since the most fertile soils from the entire forest zone were formed under these forests, the forests were intensively cut down, and arable land took their place. In addition, oak, which has very strong wood, was widely used in construction.

The reign of Peter I was the time for Russia to create a sailing fleet. “Tsar's idea” demanded a large amount of high-quality wood, so the so-called ship groves were strictly guarded. The inhabitants of the forest and forest-steppe zones actively cut down forests that were not part of the protected areas under arable land and meadows. In the middle of the XIX century. the era of the sailing fleet ended, ship groves ceased to guard, and the forests began to reduce even more intensively.

By the beginning of the 20th century only fragments of the once united and vast belt of broad-leaved forests are preserved. Even then, they tried to grow new oaks, but this turned out to be difficult: young oak groves died due to frequent and severe droughts. Studies conducted under the leadership of the great Russian geographer V.V. Dokuchaev, showed that these disasters were associated with large-scale deforestation and, as a result, changes in the hydrological regime and climate of the territory.

Nevertheless, in the 20th century, the remaining oak forests were intensively cut down. Pest insects and cold winters of the end of the century have made extinction of natural oak forests inevitable.

Today, in some areas where broad-leaved forests used to grow, secondary forests and artificial plantations, in which coniferous species of trees prevail, have spread. It is hardly possible to restore the structure and dynamics of natural oak forests not only in Russia, but throughout Europe (where they have experienced even more anthropogenic influence).

The fauna of deciduous forests is represented by ungulates, predators, rodents, insectivores, and bats. They are distributed mainly in those forests where the living conditions are the least changed by humans. There are moose, red and spotted deer, roe deer, fallow deer, wild boars. Wolves, foxes, martens, hori, ermines and weasels represent a detachment of predators in deciduous forests. Among rodents there are beavers, nutria, muskrats, squirrels. Rats and mice, moles, hedgehogs, shrews, as well as various species of snakes, lizards and marsh turtles live in forests. Birds of deciduous forests are diverse. Most of them belong to the order of passerines - finches, starlings, tits, swallows, flytraps, scallops, larks, etc. Other birds live here: crows, jackdaws, magpies, rooks, woodpeckers, crossbills, as well as large birds - grouse and black grouse . Of the carnivores, hawks, loons, owls, owls and eagle owls are found. Waders, cranes, herons, different types of ducks, geese and gulls are found in the swamps.

Red deer used to live in forests, steppes, forest-steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, but deforestation and plowing of the steppes led to a sharp decrease in their numbers. Red deer prefer light, mainly broad-leaved forests. The body length of these graceful animals reaches 2.5 m, weight - 340 kg. Deer live in a mixed herd of about 10 individuals. The herd is most often headed by an old female, with whom her children of different ages live.

In the fall, males collect a harem. Their roar, reminiscent of the sound of a trumpet, is heard for 3-4 km. Having defeated the rivals, the deer acquires a harem of 2-3, and sometimes up to 20 females - this is how the second type of deer herds appears. In the beginning of summer, a deer is born in a deer. It weighs 8-11 kg and grows very quickly up to six months. A newborn deer is covered in several rows of bright spots. From year to year, males have horns, after a year deer drop their horns, and immediately new ones begin to grow. Deers eat grass, leaves and shoots of trees, mushrooms, lichens, reeds and hodgepodge, and will not refuse bitter wormwood, but the needles are destructive for them. In captivity, deer live up to 30 years, and in natural conditions no more than 15.

Beavers - large rodents - are common in Europe and Asia. The body length of the beaver reaches 1 m, weight - 30 kg. A massive body, a flattened tail and swimming membranes on the toes of the hind legs are maximally adapted to the aquatic lifestyle. The fur of the beaver is from light brown to almost black, the animals lubricate it with a special secret, protecting it from getting wet. When a beaver is immersed in water, its auricles fold along and the nostrils close. A beaver that dives so consumes air that it can be under water for up to 15 minutes. Beavers settle on the banks of slowly flowing forest rivers, elders and lakes, preferring bodies of water with abundant aquatic and coastal vegetation. Beavers arrange burrows or lodges near the water, the entrance to which is always located below the surface of the water. In reservoirs with an unstable water level below their "houses", beavers build famous dams. They regulate the flow so that you can always get into the hut or hole from the water. Animals easily gnaw branches and cut large trees, gnawing them at the base of the trunk. An aspen with a diameter of 5-7 cm beaver fells in 2 minutes. Beavers feed on aquatic herbaceous plants - reeds, egg capsules, water lilies, iris, etc., and in the fall they cut down trees, harvesting food for the winter. In spring, beavers are born beavers that can swim in two days. Beavers live in families, only in the third year of life do young beavers leave to create their own family.

Wild pigs - wild boars - are typical inhabitants of deciduous forests. The boar has a huge head, an elongated muzzle and a long strong snout, ending in a moving "patch". The jaws of the beast are equipped with serious weapons - strong and sharp trihedral fangs, bent up and back. Boar's vision is poorly developed, and the sense of smell and hearing are very subtle. Boars may collide with a motionless hunter, but they will hear even the slightest sound made by him. Wild boars reach a length of 2 m, and some individuals weigh up to 300 kg. The body is covered with strong elastic bristles of dark brown color.

They run fast enough, swim excellently and are able to cross a pond several kilometers wide. Wild boars are omnivores, but their main food is plants. Wild boars like acorns and beech nuts that fall to the ground in autumn are very fond of. Do not give up frogs, worms, insects, snakes, mice and chicks.

Piglets are usually born in mid-spring. They are covered on the sides with longitudinal dark brown and yellow-gray stripes. After 2-3 months, the strips gradually disappear, the piglets become first ash gray, and then black-brown

Small-leaved forests - forests formed by deciduous (summer-green) trees with narrow leaf blades.

Wood species are mainly represented by birch, aspen and alder; these trees have small leaves (compared to oak and beech).

Distributed in the forest zone of the West Siberian and East European plains, they are widely represented in the mountains and plains of the Far East, they are part of the Central Siberian and West Siberian forest-steppes, form a strip of birch forests (logging). Small-leaved forests make up a strip of deciduous forests that stretches from the Urals to the Yenisei. In Western Siberia, small-leaved forests form a narrow subzone between the taiga and the forest-steppe. Ancient stone-birch forests in Kamchatka form the upper forest belt in the mountains.

Small-leaved forests are light forests, they are distinguished by a wide variety of grass cover. These ancient forests were later supplanted by taiga, but under human influence on taiga forests (deforestation of taiga forests and fires) again occupied large areas. Small-leaved forests due to the rapid growth of birch and aspen have good renewability.

Unlike birch forests, aspen forests are very resistant to human influences, since aspen is propagated not only by seeds, but also vegetatively, they are characterized by the highest average growth rates.

Small-leaved forests often grow in floodplains, where they are most widely represented by willows. They stretch along the channels in places for many kilometers, formed by several species of willows. Most often these are trees or large shrubs with narrow leaves, developing long shoots and having high growth energy.

Forest-steppe is a natural zone of the Northern Hemisphere, characterized by a combination of forest and steppe plots.

In Eurasia, the forest-steppes stretch a continuous strip from west to east from the eastern foothills of the Carpathians to Altai. In Russia, the border with the forest zone passes through cities such as Kursk and Kazan. To the west and east of this strip, the continuous extension of the forest-steppe is disturbed by the influence of mountains. Separate sections of forest-steppes are located within the Central Danube Plain, a number of intermountain basins of Southern Siberia, Northern Kazakhstan, Mongolia and the Far East, and also occupy part of the Sunliao Plain in northeast China. The forest-steppe climate is temperate, usually with moderately hot summers and moderately cool winters. Evaporation prevails slightly over precipitation.

Forest-steppe is one of the zones included in the Temperate zone. A moderate belt implies the presence of four seasons - winter, spring, summer and autumn. In the temperate zone, the change of seasons is always clearly pronounced.

The climate of the forest-steppe is usually temperate continental. Annual precipitation is 300-400 mm per year. Sometimes evaporation is almost equal to precipitation. Winter in the forest-steppe is mild, the average January temperature is? 7 degrees in the city of Kharkov, Ukraine (the southern border of the forest-steppe) to about? 10 degrees in Orel, where the mixed forest zone begins. Sometimes, in winter, severe frosts and mild winters can rage in the forest-steppe. The absolute minimum in the forest-steppe zone is usually equal to? 36? 40 degrees. Summer in the forest-steppe is sometimes hot and arid. Sometimes it can be cold and rainy, but it is rare. Most often, the summer is characterized by unstable, unstable weather, which can be very different, depending on the activity of certain atmospheric processes. The average July temperature, depending on the location, ranges from 19.50 ° C to 250 ° C. The absolute maximum in the forest-steppe is equal to about 37-39 degrees in the shade. However, heat in the forest-steppe happens less frequently than severe colds, while in the steppe zone it is vice versa. One of the features of the forest-steppe is that the flora and fauna of the forest-steppe is the middle between the flora and fauna of the zone of mixed forests and the steppe zone. Both drought-resistant plants and plants characteristic of the forest, more northern zone grow in the forest-steppe. The same applies to the animal world.

I will give a description, as well as a comparative description of the steppes and deserts, in the second part of this chapter. Now we turn to the consideration of the natural zone - the semi-desert.

The semi-desert, or desert steppe, is a type of landscape that forms in an arid climate.

Semi-deserts are characterized by the absence of forests and specific vegetation and soil cover. They combine elements of steppe and desert landscapes.

Semi-deserts are found in temperate, subtropical and tropical zones of the Earth and form a natural zone located between the steppe zone in the north and the desert zone in the south.

In the temperate zone, semi-deserts are located in a continuous strip from west to east Asia from the Caspian lowland to the eastern border of China. In the subtropics, semi-deserts are widespread on the slopes of plateaus, plateaus, and uplands (Anatolian plateau, Armenian plateau, Iranian plateau, etc.).

Semi-desert soils formed in dry and semi-dry climates are rich in salts, since atmospheric precipitation is scarce and salts are retained in the soil. Active soil formation is only possible where soils receive additional moisture from rivers or groundwater. Compared to precipitation, groundwater and river water there is much more salt. Due to the high temperature, evaporation is great, during which the soil dries out and the salts dissolved in the water crystallize.

The high salt content determines the alkaline reaction of the soil, to which plants have to adapt. Most cultivated plants cannot tolerate such conditions. Sodium salts are especially harmful, since sodium prevents the formation of a granular structure of the soil. As a result, the soil turns into a dense, structureless mass. In addition, an excess of sodium in the soil interferes with physiological processes and plant nutrition.

The highly sparse vegetation of the semi-desert often appears in the form of a mosaic consisting of perennial xerophytic grasses, turfgrains, saltwort and wormwood, as well as ephemera and ephemeroids. Succulents are common in America, mainly cacti. Overgrowth of xerophytic shrubs (see Scrub) and sparse low-growing trees (acacia, palm doom, baobab, etc.) are typical in Africa and Australia.

Among semi-desert animals, hares, rodents (ground squirrels, jerboas, gerbils, field voles, hamsters) and reptiles are especially numerous; from ungulates - antelopes, bezoar goat, mouflon, kulan, etc. Of the small predators ubiquitous: jackal, striped hyena, caracal, steppe cat, fennec fox, etc. Birds are quite diverse. A lot of insects and arachnids (karakurt, scorpions, phalanges).

To protect and study the natural landscapes of the semi-deserts of the world, a number of national parks and reserves have been created, including the Ustyurt Reserve, Tigrovaya Balka, Aral-Paygambar. The traditional occupation of the population is grazing. Oasis agriculture is developed only on irrigated lands (near water bodies).

The subtropical climate of the Mediterranean is dry, rainfall in the winter falls, even mild frosts are extremely rare, summers are arid and hot. In the subtropical forests of the Mediterranean, thickets of evergreen shrubs and low trees predominate. Trees are rare, and between them various grasses and shrubs grow wildly. Junipers, a noble laurel, a strawberry tree, annually shedding bark, wild olives, tender myrtle, and roses grow here. Such types of forests are characteristic mainly in the Mediterranean, and in the mountains of the tropics and subtropics.

The subtropics on the eastern margins of the continents are characterized by a more humid climate. Precipitation falls unevenly, but it rains more in summer, that is, at a time when vegetation is especially in need of moisture. Dense humid forests of evergreen oaks, magnolias, camphor laurels prevail here. Numerous vines, thickets of tall bamboos and various shrubs enhance the originality of the humid subtropical forest.

The subtropical forest differs from the humid tropical forests by a lower species diversity, a decrease in the number of epiphytes and lianas, and also by the appearance of coniferous, tree-like ferns in the forest stand.

Wet evergreen forests are located in narrow stripes and spots along the equator. The largest tropical rainforests exist in the Amazon River Basin (Amazon Rainforest), in Nicaragua, in the southern part of the Yucatan Peninsula (Guatemala, Belize), in most of Central America (where they are called “selva”), in equatorial Africa from Cameroon to The Democratic Republic of the Congo, in many areas of Southeast Asia from Myanmar to Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, in the Australian state of Queensland.

For tropical rainforests characterized by:

· Continuous vegetation of vegetation throughout the year;

· A variety of flora, the predominance of dicotyledons;

The presence of 4-5 tree layers, the absence of shrubs, a large number of epiphytes, epiphalls and vines;

· The prevalence of evergreen trees with large evergreen leaves, poorly developed bark, buds not protected by kidney scales, deciduous trees in monsoon forests;

· The formation of flowers, and then fruits directly on the trunks and thick branches (caulifloria).

"Green Hell" - so these places were called by many travelers of past centuries who had to be here. A solid wall consists of tall, multi-tiered forests, under whose dense crowns dusk reigns constantly, monstrous humidity, constant high temperature, no change of seasons, showers regularly fall in an almost continuous stream of water. Equator forests are also called permanent rain.

The upper floors are up to 45 m high and do not have a closed cover. As a rule, the wood of these trees is the strongest. Below, at an altitude of 18-20 m, there are tiers of plants and trees that form a continuous closed canopy and almost do not let sunlight down to the ground. A rarer lower belt is located at an altitude of about 10 m. Shrubbery and herbaceous plants, such as pineapples and bananas, ferns grow even lower. Tall trees have thickened, overgrown roots (called board-shaped) that help a gigantic plant maintain a strong bond with the soil.

In a warm and humid climate, the decomposition of dead plants occurs very quickly. From the resulting nutrient composition, substances for the life of the plant are taken. Among such landscapes flow the deepest rivers of our planet - the Amazon in the Selva of South America, the Congo in Africa, the Brah Maputra in Southeast Asia.

Partly rain forests have already been reduced. In their place, a person cultivates various crops, including coffee, oilseeds and rubber palm trees.

Like vegetation, the fauna of humid equatorial forests is located on different high floors of the forest. In a less populated lower tier, various insects and rodents live. In India, Indian elephants live in such forests. They are not as large as the African ones, and can move under the cover of multi-storey forests. Hippos, crocodiles, and water snakes are found in full-flowing rivers and lakes and on their banks. Among rodents, there are species that live not on the ground, but in the crowns of trees. They acquired devices that allow them to fly from branch to branch - leathery membranes that look like wings. The birds are very diverse. Among them, there are very small bright nectarina birds that extract nectar from flowers, and rather large birds, like a huge turuko or banana-eater, a rhinoceros bird with a powerful beak and a build-up on it. Despite its size, this beak is very light, like the beak of another inhabitant of the forests - the toucan. The toucan is very beautiful - a bright yellow plumage of the neck, a green beak with a red stripe, and turquoise skin around the eyes. And of course, one of the most common birds in humid evergreen forests is a variety of parrots.

Monkey. Jumping from branch to liana, monkeys use their paws and tails. Chimpanzees, monkeys, and gorillas live in the equatorial forests. The permanent habitat of gibbons is located at an altitude of about 40-50 m above the ground, in the crowns of trees. These animals are quite light (5-6 kg) and literally fly from branch to branch, swaying and clinging to their flexible front paws. Gorillas are the largest representatives of monkeys. Their height exceeds 180 cm, and they weigh much more than a person - up to 260 kg. Despite the fact that the impressive size does not allow gorillas as easily as orangutans and chimpanzees to jump along the branches, they are quite fast. Flocks of gorillas live mainly on the ground, settling in branches only for rest and sleep. Gorillas only eat plant foods that are high in moisture and allow them to quench their thirst. Adult gorillas are so strong that large predators are afraid to attack them.

Anaconda. The monstrous sizes (up to 10 meters) of the anaconda allow her to hunt large animals. Usually these are birds, other snakes, small mammals that have come to a watering place, but among the victims of the anacondas may be crocodiles and even people. When attacking a victim, pythons and anacondas first choke her; and then gradually swallow, "putting on" on the body of the prey like a glove. Digestion is slow, so these huge snakes go without food for a long time. Anacondas can live up to 50 years. Boas constitute living cubs. In contrast, pythons that live in the moist forests of India, Sri Lanka, and Africa lay their eggs. Pythons also reach very large sizes and can weigh up to 100 kg.

Comparative analysis of the steppe and desert zones

In the process of writing this term paper, a comparison of two natural zones was carried out and the following picture was obtained. It will be presented in the form of a table (Appendix 1).

Common features are:

1) the type of landscape, characterized by a flat surface (only with small hills)

2) the complete absence of trees

3) a similar fauna (both in terms of species composition and some environmental features)

4) similar humidification conditions (both zones are characterized by excessive evaporation and, as a result, insufficient moisture)

5) the types of these zones can be distinguished (say, in the forest-steppe zone, it is impossible to specify additional types)

6) the location of the steppes and deserts of Eurasia in the temperate zone (with the exception of the desert territories of the Arabian Peninsula)

The differences are as follows:

1) latitudinal localization: deserts are located south than the steppe zone

2) a significant difference is the types of soils: the steppes have chernozems, and deserts have brown soils

3) humus content is high in steppe soils, and desert soils are highly saline

4) the climatic regime is not the same: in the steppe you can observe a sharp change in the seasons, in the deserts the same temperature imbalance is observed during the day

5) the amount of precipitation in the steppe is much higher

6) grasses growing in the steppe form an almost closed carpet, in deserts between separate plants the distance can reach several tens of meters.

Practicalwork number 1. “Comparison of natural zones along the 40th parallel on the continents of Eurasia and North America”

Purpose: to determine the similarities and differences in the location of natural zones on the 40th parallel of continents Eurasia and North America

Tasks:

Educational: consolidate the concept of “natural zones”, the diversity of natural zones according to the parallel of the continents of Eurasia and North America and the factors affecting their geographical location

Developing : continue the formation of cognitive activity of students, the development of the ability to compare the data obtained and draw appropriate conclusions

Educational: to raise interest in the subject, attentiveness when working with cards

1. Updating knowledge:

2.Work on the atlas and demo map "Natural zones of the world"

3. Implementation of the practical part:

1 fill in the table using the atlas:

2. Write down the conclusion, indicating the reasons affecting the difference in the natural zones of the two continents along the 40th parallel.

4. The planned result of the work of students:

Students fill out the table. Then write the conclusion indicating the factors. affecting differences in the location of natural zones in the 40th parallel.

Description of practical work

on continents Eurasia and North America "

The purpose of the lesson: the formation of students' ideas and knowledge about the nature of Eurasia.

To continue the formation of the ability to establish causal relationships between the various components of nature and explain the adaptive features of living organisms to living conditions, to draw independent conclusions.

Determine which natural area can really be called the “lungs of the planet” and why

Equipment: A physical map of the world, a map of "Natural Zones", atlases, a geography textbook, Grade 7.

Ways of cognitive activity of students: comparative, analysis, generalization.

In the course of the practical work, the teacher carries out the actualization of knowledge, where he fixes the concepts of “natural zone”, “latitudinal zonality”, “altitudinal zonation”.

Enhances students' knowledge on the topic "Natural areas », establishing cause-effect relationships of the location of natural zones on the mainland.

At the next stage, the teacher explains the stages of the practical work, paying attention to the use by children of various sources of additional information: thematic atlases, reference books.

Then the students proceed to the practical part, filling out the table proposed by the teacher, and write down the conclusions.

Analysis

practical work

“Comparison of natural zones along the 40th parallel

on the continents of Eurasia and North America. "

Natural area:polar deserts

Territory:The Far North of Eurasia

Climatic zone: arctic

The soil:covered with glaciers

Plants:almost none, occasionally mosses and lichens, swamp sedge

Animals:polar bears, lemmings, bird markets in the summer, rarely white fox, arctic fish, seals and walruses.

Natural area:tundra and forest tundra

Territory:The Far North of Eurasia

Climatic zone:subArctic

The soil: eternal Frost

Plants: sedge, other herbs, mosses, shrubs. To the south are dwarf trees, such as arctic birch.

Animals: a lot of fish, polar grouse, white owl, reindeer, lemmings, arctic fox, seal, walrus, partridge, wolves.

Natural area:taiga (coniferous forests)

Territory:north Europe, Far East, Siberia

Climatic zone:moderate

The soil: eternal Frost

Plants:spruce, pine, cedar, larch, fir

Animals: brown bear, wolf, brown hare, musk deer, elk, sable, otter, beaver, ermine squirrel, roe deer, mole, chicken, many birds (pine nut, crossbill, titmouse) and so on. A lot of fur animals.

Natural area: temperate mixed forests (including monsoon)

Territory:Central European plain, plots in the Far East, Western Siberia, northern Europe.

Climatic zone:moderate

The soil:forest brown and podzolic

Plants:spruce, pine, fir, maple, oak, ash, willow, swamp sedge, birch, apple tree, elm, linden

Animals: brown bear, wolf, hare, fox, squirrel, wild boar, sika deer, roe deer, various birds (nightingale, capercaillie, pheasant, wagtail, rook, falcon, oriole, lark, lapwing, black grouse, sparrow, crow, magpie, partridge, quail and others)

Natural area: steppes and forest-steppes

Territory:southern part of the East European (Russian) plain, Mongolia, Southern Urals, Kazakhstan, China

Climatic zone: moderate

The soil: chernozem (the most fertile)

Plants:feather grass, dream grass, cane of the steppe, fescue, wormwood, oats, sheep, wild apple trees, willows, lindens and poplar in groups, and so on

Animals: steppe wolf, hare, steppe eagle, bustard, hawk, marmots, ground squirrels, harrier steppe, owl, saigas, saigas, jerboas.

Natural area:semi-deserts and deserts

Territory:Karakum, Gobi, Registan, Kyzylkum, Arabian Desert, Takla-Makan and other deserts in Southwest Asia and Central Asia

Climatic zone:arid

The soil:dry sandy, clayey or rocky. Often salted

Plants:rare - camel thorn, tamarisk, prickly acacia, saxaul, wormwood, elm, cotton, hodgepodge. Trees only on oases.

Animals:poisonous cobra and other snakes, jerboa, giraffe, sand mice, saiga, saiga, baibak, ground squirrel, lizards

Natural area:high altitude zones (mountains)

Territory: Himalayas, Pamir, Tien Shan, Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, Crimean mountains, Apennines, Pyrenees, Sayans, Urals, Sikhote-Alin

Climatic zone:any of those listed in this table

The soil: rocky mountain

Plants:from treeless rocky deserts at the very top of mountain ranges, where only individual mosses and lichens grow, vegetation increases as you return to the foot of the mountains. After deserts grassy alpine meadows follow, then a forest belt or desert-steppe is possible.

Animals:depending on the mountain system - mountain sheep, mouflon, mountain goat, wild pig, musk ox, Himalayan black bear, antelope, yak, musk deer, chamois, wild goat, snow leopard (snow leopard), wild horse On the Sikhote-Alin Range in the Far East Russia - Mandarin duck, Ussuri tiger, leopard (big feline are threatened with extinction)

Natural area: subtropical, tropical moist (including monsoon) forests

Territory:Far East, Mediterranean, India, Southeast Asia, China

Climatic zone: tropics and subtropics

The soil:chernozem, yellow earth, red earth

Plants:tangerines, oranges, lemons, palm trees, cycas, cypress, begonias, other high

herbs, orchids, creepers

Animals:in the Far East - the Ussuri tiger, mandarin duck, leopard. In general, wolves, monkeys, elephants, eagles, parrots, toucan, chameleon, a wide variety of butterflies, bats

Natural area:moist equatorial forests (jungle)

Territory:south India, Southeast Asia

Climatic zone:subequatorial and equatorial

The soil:red earth

Plants: mangroves, various palm trees, crowns, coconuts, papaya, creepers, banana, orchids, wet mosses

Animals: Bengal tiger, crocodile, monitor lizard, elephants, monkeys, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, squirrels, flying squirrels, parrots, flying fish, termites, many different lizards, insects and butterflies.